What is the state of civil society in Egypt today? Thousands of institutions
claim to be its representatives. To what extent do they entertain political free-
dom? How far-reaching are the rights of an individual in the country?
The Egyptian constitution of 1970, which was amended in 1980, is for the
most part a democratic one, if it were not for one article in it, which may be
used to make all its democratic intentions futile. It is Article 2, which stipu-
lates the Islamic shari’a as the primary source of all legislation. This means
that non-Muslims as well as women are not granted full civil rights,
claim to be its representatives. To what extent do they entertain political free-
dom? How far-reaching are the rights of an individual in the country?
The Egyptian constitution of 1970, which was amended in 1980, is for the
most part a democratic one, if it were not for one article in it, which may be
used to make all its democratic intentions futile. It is Article 2, which stipu-
lates the Islamic shari’a as the primary source of all legislation. This means
that non-Muslims as well as women are not granted full civil rights,
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